COMMUNITY SCALE DOMESTIC WASTE WATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS IN LARGE THIRD WORLD CITIES

A case study in Malang, East-Java

By Suriptono¹ and Peter Newman²

1. INTRODUCTION
2. THE STATE OF DOMESTIC WASTE WATER IN INDONESIAN CITIES

2.1. Indonesia's population
2.2. Indonesia's urban population growth
2.3. Existing domestic waste water facilities

3. DISADVANTAGES OF LARGE SCALE SYSTEMS IN TACKLING DOMESTIC WASTE WATER ISSUES.

3.1. Sustainability
3.2. Expensive - It cannot be afforded by developing countries
3.3. Too much disruption and destruction in dense cities
3.4. Difficult to involve the community and maintain community values

4. SMALL SCALE COMMUNITY TECHNOLOGY: AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH - AS AN INNOVATIVE SOLUTION

4.1. What is small scale technology?
4.2. What is small scale community technology?
4.3 Sustainability of Small Scale Community Technology

5. CASE STUDY OF THE APPLICABILITY OF SMALL SCALE COMMUNITY TECHNOLOGY IN INDONESIA: THE EMBONG BRANTAS PROJECT

5.1. Introduction
5.2. The objectives of the project
5.3. Where is the site of the demonstration project?
5.4. What are the existing environmental and community conditions of the Embong Brantas community?
5.5. What small scale domestic waste water treatment technology is being used in the project?

5.6. What has happened in the project so far?
5.7. What lessons have been learnt from the project so far?

6. CONCLUSION
QUESTIONS
References

1. INTRODUCTION

The objective of this case study is to demonstrate how 'Small Scale Community Technology' is appropriate in a developing country such as Indonesia. We will discuss the current state of domestic waste water in Indonesia. Section three will look at some of the disadvantages of conventional large scale domestic waste water treatment systems. In Section four the idea of 'Small Scale Community Technology' will be introduced. This section will explain how this type of technology may be appropriate for the local Indonesian context. Section Five provides a case study where 'Small Scale Community Technology' in the area of domestic waste water treatment is implemented in a local Indonesian community.

Photo 1. One of the few toilets in the Embong Brantas village.

2. THE STATE OF DOMESTIC WASTE WATER IN INDONESIAN CITIES

2.1. Indonesia's population

Indonesia is currently the fourth largest country in the world. It was estimated that by 1997 the Indonesian population would be over 200 million people. The largest cities are as follows: Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang (Microsoft Encarta 1996 - Encyclopaedia).

2.2. Indonesia's urban population growth

Most of the population growth has been centred in the urban areas. In 1970, approximately 15% of Indonesia's population were urban dwellers and this has increased to over 30% in the mid 1990's. By the year 2020, half of the entire population may reside in urban areas. This urban transition is occurring more rapidly on Java where it is estimated that the urban population will have reached 36% by 2020. The 1994 World Bank report: "Indonesia: Environment and development' states that urban areas have been growing rapidly in recent years at over 5% per annum and this trend is likely to continue.

2.3. Existing domestic waste water facilities

Indonesian cities only have rudimentary sewerage systems, so that urban households either rely on private septic tanks, or dispose of human waste directly into rivers and canals. Septic tanks, however, are rarely maintained properly, causing overflows which contaminate groundwater supplies, including the shallow wells upon which most urban households depend for their potable water. Even when the sludge from the septic tanks is collected most of it is disposed of into rivers and canals (The World Bank 1994).

Photo 2. The Brantas river in Malang is heavily polluted by sewage.

The British Overseas Development Administration (ODA) commissioned the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) in 1994 to write an environmental Synopsis of Indonesia. This report states that only four cities in Indonesia have sewerage systems and that these are limited in scope and poorly maintained. The report suggested that:

"The major cities of Java, and some of those on Sumatra and Kalimantan are already facing serious health and environmental problems as a result of these inadequacies [and that] western-style, flush-based domestic sewerage systems are rare in Indonesian cities as water supplies are inadequate, and the high cost of these systems limits their use to higher income groups." (IIED p.32)

Soerjani (1993) states that domestic waste has been a major contributor towards polluting Indonesia's rivers. In Indonesia, about 45% of total water pollution is caused by domestic waste, if using biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) as a standard, compared to solid waste (28%), commercial/office waste (21%), and industrial waste (7%). Although these percentage figures do not take into account the condition of the specific rivers, they do indicate that domestic waste must receive serious attention, and effort must be directed towards finding solutions to both the issues of untreated domestic waste, and the problems caused by it.

The remaining part of this study looks at different solutions for solving the environmental and social problems in Indonesia caused by insufficient domestic waste water facilities.

3. DISADVANTAGES OF LARGE SCALE SYSTEMS IN TACKLING DOMESTIC WASTE WATER ISSUES.

3.1. Sustainability

Sustainability is a process of striving to achieve a balance of three distinct development processes - economic development, community development and ecological development at the local level. The process is to test, evaluate, develop and disseminate ways to improve the process of economic development in such a way that it can protect the ecosystems and community systems that make life possible and worthwhile (ICLEI, IDRC & UNEP 1996).

Large scale systems have many disadvantages in many areas of sustainability. Economically, they are too expensive for developing countries like Indonesia, and from the local community perspective these systems can often be disruptive and do not encourage community involvement.

3.2. Expensive - It cannot be afforded by developing countries

Most developed countries in the world began building large-scale sewerage systems one hundred years ago. They have built their cities progressively around them. It would require a huge amount of funds for similar domestic waste water systems to be built from nothing in developing countries. Nevertheless there are still plans being created to try to do just that. For instance, Taiwan which has an area of 3600 square kilometres and a population of 21 million is planning to expend at least US$10.2 billion to raise the coverage of modern sewerage in that country from the current one percent to thirty three percent by the year 2009 (Yao, 1996). Similar estimates have been made for Indonesian cities. Not surprisingly, little follow up funds have ever been found. This is even further exacerbated by the current economic downturn.

3.3. Too much disruption and destruction in dense cities

Sewerage systems require large-scale disruption and in dense Asian cities this would be magnified many times over affecting existing infrastructure such as roads, housing, electricity and telecommunications. It could be envisaged, using large-scale systems, that the building process would almost bring the city to a standstill. It raises the question of whether it is worthwhile to virtually destroy the city to try and save it.

Photo 3 . Indonesian cities, like Embong Brantas, are dense and
have little space to put in extensive pipes for sewage.

3.4. Difficult to involve the community and maintain community values

Communities need help in determining their future from experts, from NGO's, from governments - but in the end they are the ones who will drive the sustainability agenda and it is that recognition which must be the first step in a long walk towards sustainability. One of the main disadvantages of large scale waste water treatment projects is that they are normally implemented using a top down process rather than building on existing community values and cultural heritage and involving the local community.

Any cultural heritage and community values which are part of existing communities in Indonesia should be taken into account if we want to involve people within community development programmes. Part of Indonesia's cultural heritage is the 'Gotong Royong' which translates as 'mutual participation' (Koentjaraningrat 1974). The need to mix domestic waste water technological solutions with the existing cultural ways of Indonesia will be discussed further in the next section.

4. SMALL SCALE COMMUNITY TECHNOLOGY: AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH - AS AN INNOVATIVE SOLUTION

4.1. What is small scale technology?

"Today we suffer from an almost universal idolatry of giantism, it is therefore necessary to insist on the virtues of smallness where this applies."

E.F.Schumacher 1973, p.49

Schumacher (1973 p.49) emphasises the importance of small units if we want to perform development: "When it comes to action, we obviously need small units- Small scale technology is technology which aims to operate at the local community level and is considered to have the following characteristics:

• simple operation and maintenance methods;
• minimises high skill demands;
• low operating and maintenance cost;
• uses local resources and materials where ever possible; and
• easily adjustable to different circumstances at the local level.

Photo 4. An example of small scale community technology.

4.2. What is small scale community technology?

The idea of small scale community technology (SSCT) is to bring together the philosophy of small scale technology with existing cultural heritage at the local community level in order to more effectively implement the technological solution. Indonesia already has in place a strong cultural heritage at the local community level which is known as Gotong Royong. The meaning of Gotong is 'carrying work together'. The meaning of Royong is 'distributing the earnings or income'. Thus Gotong Royong is a cultural heritage that practically means working together for the benefits of the community and can be distinguished by mutual obligation between people in which they know and need each other.

Gotong Royong can also help encourage and lead people within the community to face and overcome problems together, to share and bear the burden of life together (Pacific Century E-Media 1996). The actual basis of Gotong Royong is formed by two principles: reciprocity and equality. Practically, all tasks are undertaken in team-work in which the most diligent people are the informal leaders (Slamet 1963). Gotong Royong, in the social-psychological context, can therefore be described as a strong solidarity on the community level that is prevalent in small units, which in Indonesia is usually within the 'Kampung' or 'local village' (Hofsteede 1971).

Photo 5. Community meeting to discuss proposed domestic waste water treatment systems at Embong Brantas.

People within Kampungs in Indonesia already work together on small scale community projects such as: building houses and community buildings; working on improving their local paths, open drainage systems and lighting; and cleaning their own local community environment. It therefore makes sense to bring together the philosophy of community based development such as Gotong Royong with the philosophy of small scale technology.

Figure 1 graphically demonstrates how the combining of these two types of philosophies can create the notion of  'Small Scale Community Technology'. 'Small Scale Community Technology' is therefore technology which is implemented, operated and maintained at the local community level. By combining these philosophies together there are also many social, economic and environmental benefits hence 'Small Scale Community Technology' is intrinsically more sustainable.

Figure 1. The concept and the target of 'Small scale community technology'

4.3 Sustainability of Small Scale Community Technology

Figure 2 explains the social, economic and environmental benefits of Small Scale Community Technology.

Figure 2. Benefits of Small Scale Community Technology

5. CASE STUDY OF THE APPLICABILITY OF SMALL SCALE COMMUNITY TECHNOLOGY IN INDONESIA: THE EMBONG BRANTAS PROJECT

Photo 6. Embong Brantas near site of Ecomax.

5.1. Introduction

The Embong Brantas Project is a 'Small Scale Community Technology'(SSCT) demonstration project which is in the early stages of implementation within the Embong Brantas community in East Java, Indonesia. The project commenced in 1994 and represents the fruit of the collaboration between Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia and Merdeka University, Malang, East Java, Indonesia. The project aims to test Australian small scale domestic waste water technology for its applicability in the local Indonesian context. This Section will briefly describe a variety of key aspects of the project.

5.2. The objectives of the project

The project is testing the effectiveness of small scale community technology in relation to the local Indonesian context by using two types of Australian small scale domestic waste water treatment systems known as the Ecomax and BioMAX. These systems are described in section 5.5. The main objectives of the project are the following:

1. To pioneer and develop a cost-effective and affordable solution for provision of domestic waste water treatment in Indonesia.
2. To develop a solution for systematically improving the water quality and ecological stability of Indonesian rivers.
3. To create a solution for domestic waste water treatment which has the following social benefits:
   • appropriate to existing Indonesian cultural heritage and community values
   • is not disruptive to the city
   • beneficial to the health and social well-being of the community
   • can be adopted, managed, and owned at the local community level.
4. To evaluate how the Australian small scale domestic waste water technology needs to be adapted for the Indonesian context.
5. To examine, assess, develop and disseminate the effectiveness of 'Small Scale Community Technology' and its applicability as a nation-wide program for solving domestic waste water problems in Indonesia.

5.3. Where is the site of the demonstration project?

The Embong Brantas is a squatter community along the Brantas River in the centre of Malang municipality, East Java, Indonesia. Malang is a city of 800,000 people and the Embong Brantas is a kampung (local urban village) of approximately 5000 people. The demonstration project is directly involved with a smaller sub-group of the Embong Brantas community of 100 people.

5.4. What are the existing environmental and community conditions of the Embong Brantas community?

Current monitoring of the Brantas River at the vicinity of the Embong Brantas village indicates that the water quality is highly polluted. Black water and grey water have been a major problem in this area and are the major pollutant of the river. In addition, the water has not been drinkable for some time. The Brantas River in the vicinity of Embong Brantas village is currently being used for domestic activities such as defecation, bathing and laundry. Some people are even using it for cooking. This is leading to health problems such as cholera, diarrhoea and skin diseases.

The housing in the area is crowded and is densely populated and is often referred to as a "squatter" settlement. The housing is locally constructed by community members and the average house consists of two or three rooms. Despite the poorer type of urban conditions, the sense of community is strong and the cultural heritage of ' Gotong Royong' can be seen in the way the community helps each other in every aspect of life. For example local community members help each other to build houses, clean up their local environment and even share food.

5.5. What small scale domestic waste water treatment technology is being used in the project?

The Embong Brantas project is testing the benefits of small scale technology in the Indonesian context by making use of existing innovative Australian small scale technology known as BioMAX and Ecomax. These two types of technologies are well known in Australia as small scale high performance sewage treatment systems used at the local community level.

The BioMAX small scale technology

The BioMAX system is an onsite treatment system which utilises anaerobic and aerobic methods to meet the standard discharge criteria for BOD5 and suspended solids of 20mg/l and 30 mg/l. The final treated water can also be used to irrigate surface coverage such as small shrubs and ground cover. The effluent quality produced by the BioMAX system is shown in Table 1. About 2000 BioMAX systems of differing capacities have already been installed in several different countries, including Australia, Indonesia, South Africa and Indonesia.

Photo 9. Inspection of ablution block and Biomax's tank in the Embong Brantas area during the final stages of building.

Ecomax is an innovative high-performance sewage treatment system developed in Western Australia in 1989. A typical household system is generally positioned adjacent to the house and grassed over to blend into the garden landscape and requires about 100 square metres or slightly more. The system has the following notable features: very high phosphorus and nitrogen removal; high removal of BOD and suspended solids; disinfection without chemical addition; heavy metal removal; Gravity driven process; very long life; negligible maintenance; moving parts.

The benefits of both systems are that the effluents are either discharged to the ground or can be reused for local community gardening. This is more beneficial compared to large-scale conventional sewage treatment plants which generally discharge to a watercourse. Both technologies are also considered to be more advanced sewage treatment systems than current conventional systems. For example, the Ecomax system is considered twenty time more effective than the most current technologically advanced sewage treatment systems.

Table 2 : Typical effluent quality from Ecomax Septic Systems

5.6. What has happened in the project so far?

The Centre for Environmental Management and Technology (CEMT) at Merdeka University was established by Murdoch University and Merdeka University in July 1996 as a result of an International Symposium on Environmental Technology. The speakers at the Symposium envisaged the idea of applying small scale Australian domestic waste water technology to a small pilot project in an Indonesian community. CEMT, which is made up of academics from the two universities, were then charged with coordinating the project and also for securing funding.

The first stage of the process involved preliminary discussions in the form of workshops with the chosen local community members and leaders of the Embong Brantas community and the following government agencies: the Jasa Tirta Water Enterprise (the Brantas River Water Authority), the Public Work Department of Malang Municipality, the Public Health Agency of Malang Municipality, the Irrigation Department of Malang Municipality, the Environmental Protection Department of Malang Municipality, and the provincial Government.

Photo 10. Embong Brantas, a well established 'squatter'settlement in central Melang.

A survey was also conducted by CEMT to evaluate stakeholders'social and political acceptance of the project. The results showed a very optimistic attitude towards participation in the project, although it also became evident that there was a general lack of knowledge about the technology and how it would be operated and maintained. An environmental education program was then set up by CEMT to try and address this problem.

By the end of 1997, agreement by the local community, Government agencies, and the Australian Agency for International Development (AUSAID) had been secured, with agreement for joint funding between all parties being finalised. In March 1998, the Local Government through the Regional Development Planning Board and the Public Works Department of Malang Municipality built the retaining wall for the two types of Australian technologies. A small scale BioMAX waste water treatment system was then installed in the Embong Brantas community in November 1998.

A small scale high performance waste water treatment system called Ecomax is also scheduled to be installed in February 1999. AUSAID through a Pollution Control Implementation (PCI) project grant, in collaboration with BAPEDAL (Environmental Protection Agency in the provincial level), funded A$79,000 for the installation of two ablution blocks and the BioMAX and Ecomax systems.

5.7. What lessons have been learnt from the project so far?

The following is a brief summary of some of the lessons that have been learnt from the early stages of the project:

• The importance of environmental education with in the local community and local agencies in order to, firstly, build environmental awareness of the issues and, secondly, to encourage stakeholders to participate in the implementation and on-going management and maintenance of the 'small scale community technology." "!

• A partnership approach between the local community, local agencies and the university (CEMT) provides a way of sharing knowledge, encouraging local ownership and mutual and joint participation and funding opportunities of the project.

• Ensuring that the local community and relevant agencies actually want the project, have a positive and optimistic attitude towards the project from its outset, and that they are interested in both the implementation and on-going management and maintenance of the project. Using a stakeholders'workshop and a survey during the early stages of the project helps to make sure this happens and that the local community has a sense of ownership in the project. Women play a critical role in this process

Photo 11. Women at Embong Brantas.

• The need to be constantly looking for ways to improve and make the technology more appropriate to the local Indonesian context and ensure that it can be maintained and managed in the long-term by local communities and local agencies.

6. CONCLUSION

'Small scale community technology'(SSCT) is a system designed to help develop 'small scale technology'and build 'community participation'. The concept contains social, environmental and economic aspects of sustainable development principles. Socially, the SSCT fits with the traditional Indonesian community principle of Gotong Royong and enables the local community to own and manage the technology by themselves. Environmentally, the SSCT will treat domestic waste water more effectively and has more potential for water reuse. Economically, the SSCT will be cost effective because, unlike large-scale systems, small-scale systems require proportionally smaller on-going maintenance budgets. Moreover the SSCT will not cause major disruption to the densely populated cities. This results in large savings which are very important for developing countries like Indonesia where funds are scarce and tend to meet priority needs.

At present, the development of SSCT systems, including the construction of 'small scale domestic waste water treatment plants' is in the hands of Indonesian Universities. They have the capability to tackle environmental problems in general, and domestic waste water issues in particular. Perhaps, more importantly, the Universities have the trust of the stakeholders, mainly the local government, NGOs and the local community.

The idea of small scale domestic waste water treatment plants using the SSCT system has a huge market potential in Indonesia. It is imperative that the Indonesian Universities play a significant role in helping and advising foreign companies entering this market on how to proceed.

QUESTIONS

1. Why is sanitation not provided more extensively in Asian cities?
2. Can small scale sanitation systems provide a solution when large centralised sewage systems cannot be built?
3. What role does the local community play in small scale technologies like those in this case study?

References

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(Online), Available World Wide Web: URL : http://www.ecomax.com.au

(Accessed 25 January 1999)

Hofsteede, W.M.F 1971, Decision Making Process in Four West Javanese Villages, Dissertation, Nijmegen.

Holbrook, J., Durrant, R., Kurup, R.G., 1997, 'BioMAX wastewater recycling systems', Adopting, Applying and Operating Environmentally Sound Technologies for Urban Management, Proceedings: Regional Workshop for Asia Pacific, International Environmental Technology Centre, United Nations Environment Programme, Murdoch University,Western Australia, December 8-13, 1997, eds. G. Ho, K. Mathew & M. Anda, Murdoch University, Western Australia, pp. 1-6.

Koentjaraningrat 1974, 'The village in Indonesian Today', in Villages in Indonesia, ed. Koentjaraningrat, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, pp. 386-405.

Microsoft Encarta 1996, Encyclopaedia, 1993-1995 Microsoft Corporation, Funk & Wagnalls Corporation.

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(Accessed 24 September 1998)

Schumacher, F. 1993, Small is beautiful, Vintage Books, London.

Slamet, I.E. 1963, Pokok Pembangunan Masyarakat Desa (Topics of Village Community Development), Jakarta.

Soerjani, M. 1993, 'Waste and Environmental Quality', Femina, (Bonus), No.32/XXI, August.

The International Institute for Environment and Development 1994, Environmental Synopsis of Indonesia, IIED, London.

The Local Agenda 21 Planning Guide 1996, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development adopted Agenda 21, the global action plan for sustainable development, The International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) and The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Canada.

World Bank, 1994, Indonesia: Environment and Development, World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Yao, K.M. 1996, 'Sewerage development in Taiwan', Asian Water & Sewage, March, pp. 12-14.

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Footnotes

¹Suriptono is a Ph D student at the Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia. In his thesis he is undertaking to design and evaluate a policy for tackling domestic waste water issues in Indonesian cities. Prior to entering the ISTP's doctoral programme, he was the Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, Merdeka University, Malang, East-Java, Indonesia from 1986 to 1994. After graduating from the Civil Engineering Department, Merdeka University in 1978, he worked as a civil engineer and a director of a building construction company in Indonesia.

Mailing Address: Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia. 6150; Phone: (61) (8) 9360 2600; Fax: (61) (8) 9360 6421.

E-mail: suripton@central.murdoch.edu.au

²Peter Newman is Professor of City Policy and Director of the Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy at Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia. Peter studied at the University of Western Australia obtaining an honours degree and PhD in Chemistry. He did postgraduate and postdoctoral studies at Delft University in the Netherlands and Stanford University in California (with Professor Paul Ehrlich) before being appointed to help establish the new discipline of Environmental Science at Murdoch University in 1974. His newest book "Sustainability and Cities" was recently published in early 1999.

Mailing Address: Institute for Science and Technology Policy, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia. 6150; Phone: (61) (8) 9360 2902; Fax: (61) (8) 9360 6421.

E-mail: newman@central.murdoch.edu.au

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